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Copa America's Fixtures

GROUP A

USA v Colombia, June 4, Santa Clara, CA, 2.30am 

Costa Rica v Paraguay, June 4, Orlando, FL 10pm

USA v Costa Rica, June 8, Chicago, IL, 1am

Colombia v Paraguay, June 8, Pasadena, CA, 3.30am

USA v Paraguay, June 12, Philadelphia, PA, 12am

Colombia v Costa Rica, June 12, Houston, TX, 2am

GROUP B 

Haiti v Peru, June 5, Seattle, WA, 12.30am

Brazil v Ecuador, June 5, Pasadena, CA, 3am

Brazil v Haiti, June 9, Orlando, FL, 12.30am

Ecuador v Peru, June 9, Glendale, AZ, 2am

Ecuador v Haiti, June 12, East Rutherford, NJ, 11.30pm

Brazil v Peru, June 13, Foxborough, MA, 1.30am

GROUP C

Jamaica v Venezuela, June 5, Chicago, IL, 10pm

Mexico v Uruguay, June 6, Glendale, AZ, 12am

Uruguay v Venezuela, June 10, Philadelphia, PA, 12.30am

Mexico v Jamaica, June 10, Pasadena, CA, 3am

Mexico v Venezuela, June 14, Houston, TX, 1am

Uruguay v Jamaica, June 14, Santa Clara, CA, 3am

GROUP D

Panama v Bolivia, June 7, Orlando, FL, 12am

Argentina v Chile, June 7, Santa Clara, CA, 3am

Chile v Bolivia, June 11, Foxborough, MA, 12am

Argentina v Panama, June 11, Chicago, IL, 2.30am

Chile v Panama, June 15, Philadelphia, PA, 1am

Argentina v Bolivia, June 15, Seattle, WA, 3am

QUARTER-FINALS

Winner A v Runner-up B (June 17, Seattle, WA, 2.30am)  

Runner-up A v Winner B (June 18, East Rutherford, NJ, 1am)  

Winner C v Runner-up D (June 19, Santa Clara, CA, 3am) 

Winner D v Runner-up A (June 19, Foxborough, MA, 12am) 

SEMI-FINALS

Winner of QF1 v Winner QF4 (June 22, Houston, TX, 2am)

Winner of QF2 v Winner QF3, (June 23, Chicago, IL, 1am)

FINAL

Winner SF1 v Winner SF 2 (June 27, East Rutherford, NJ, 1am)

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Bangladesh

Bangladesh ; বাংলাদেশ, "The country of Bengal"), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh (গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ Gônôprôjatôntri Bangladesh), is a sovereign country in South Asia. It forms the major part of the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal. Located at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh is bordered by India and Myanmar and is separated from Nepal and Bhutan by the narrow Siliguri Corridor.^[8] Bangladesh is the world's eighth-most populous country, the fifth most populous in Asia and the third-most populous among Muslim-majority countries. The official Bengali language is the tenth most spoken language in the world, which Bangladesh shares with the neighboring Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura.
Three of Asia's largest rivers, the Ganges (locally known as the Padma), the Brahmaputra (locally known as the Jamuna) and the Meghna, flow through Bangladesh and form the fertile Bengal delta- the largest delta in the world.^[9] With rich biodiversity, Bangladesh is home to 700 rivers, most of the world's largest mangrove forest; rainforested and tea-growing highlands; a 600 km (370 mi) coastline with one of the world's longest beaches; and various islands, including a coral reef. Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, ranking alongside South Korea and Monaco. Urban centers are spread across the country, with the capital Dhaka and the port city Chittagong being the most prominent. Bangladesh is a historical melting pot.^[10] The predominant ethnic group are Bengalis, along with numerous minorities, including Chakmas, Garos, Marmas, Tanchangyas, Bisnupriya Manipuris, Santhals, Biharis, Oraons, Tripuris, Mundas, Rakhines and Rohingyas. The main religious communities are Muslims (86.6%), Hindus (12.1%), Buddhists (0.6%) and Christians (0.4%).^[11]
Greater Bengal was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai.^[12] The people of the delta developed their own language, script, literature, music, art and architecture. A thalassocracy and an entrepôt of the historic Silk Road,^[13] Ancient Bengal established colonies on Indian Ocean islands and in Southeast Asia;^[14][15] influenced the cultures of Tibet and China;^[16] and had strong trade links with Persia, Arabia and the Mediterranean that focused on its lucrative cotton muslin textiles.^[17] Islam, introduced by traders and Sufis in the first millennium, was adopted under the Delhi Sultanate as an official religion. Bengal was absorbed into the Muslim world and the achievements of pre-Islamic civilizations were embraced by the new polity. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Bengal Sultanate emerged as a regional power in Asia. By the 16th and 17th centuries, the Mughal Empire controlled the region and its Bengal Subah province became a prosperous hub of trade. British colonial conquest took place in the late-18th century. Nationalism, social reforms and the arts developed under the British Raj in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the region was a hotbed of the anti-colonial movement in the subcontinent.
The first British partition of Bengal in 1905, that created the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, set the precedent for the Partition of British India in 1947, when East Bengal joined the Dominion of Pakistan; and later became East Pakistan in 1955. It was separated from West Pakistan by 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) of Indian territory. East Pakistan was home to the country's demographic majority and its legislative capital.^[18][19] The Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as a new republic with a secular multiparty parliamentary democracy.^[20][21][22] A short-lived one party state and several military coups in 1975 established a presidential government. The restoration of the parliamentary republic in 1991 led to improved economic growth and relative stability. However, Bangladesh continues to face challenges of poverty, corruption, polarized politics, human rights abuses by security forces, overpopulation and global warming. The country has achieved notable human development progress, including in health, education, gender equality, population control and food production.^[23][24][25] The poverty rate has reduced from 57% in 1990 to 25.6% in 2014.^[26]
A major developing country, Bangladesh is a Next Eleven emerging economy. It is a unitary state with eight administrative divisions and an elected parliament called the Jatiyo Sangshad. Bangladesh has the third-largest economy and military in South Asia after India and Pakistan. It is a founding member of SAARC and hosts the headquarters of the Bay of Bengal Initiative.^[27] The country is the world's largest contributor to United Nations peacekeeping operations.^[28] It is a member of the Developing 8 Countries, the OIC, the Commonwealth of Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Group of 77, the Non Aligned Movement, BCIM, the Indian Ocean Rim Association and BBIN. The country has significant natural resources, including natural gas, limestone and coal. Agriculture mainly produces rice, jute and tea. Bangladesh's major trading partners include Japan, the United States, the European Union and the surrounding nations of China, Malaysia and India.

Literature

See also: Bengali literature, Bengali poetry, and Bangladeshi English literature

Rabindranath Tagore, author of the national anthem, and Kazi Nazrul Islam, the National Poet

Syed Mujtaba Ali is noted for his cosmopolitan Bengali worldview

The Bangla Academy

The oldest evidence of writing in Bangladesh is the Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription, which dates back to the 3rd century BCE.^[286] During the Gupta Empire, Sanskrit literature thrived in the region. Bengali developed from Sanskrit and Magadhi Prakrit in the 11th century. Bengali literature is a millennium old tradition. The Charyapada are the earliest examples of Bengali poetry. Sufi spiritualism inspired many Bengali Muslim writers. During the Bengal Sultanate, medieval Bengali writers were influenced by Arabic and Persian works. Syed Alaol was a noted secular poet and translator. The Chandidas are an example of Bangladeshi folk literature which developed during the Middle Ages. The Bengal Renaissance shaped the emergence of modern Bengali literature, including novels, short stories and science fiction. Rabindranath Tagore was the first non-European laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature and is described as the Bengali Shakespeare.^[287] Kazi Nazrul Islam was a revolutionary poet who espoused spiritual rebellion against colonialism and fascism. Begum Rokeya was a pioneer of Bengali writing in English, with her early of work of feminist science fiction. Other renaissance icons included Michael Madhusudan Dutt and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay.
The eminent writer Syed Mujtaba Ali is noted for his cosmopolitan Bengali worldview.^[288] Humayun Ahmed was a popular writer of modern Bangladeshi magical realism and science fiction. Shamsur Rahman was the poet laureate of Bangladesh for many years. Jasimuddin was a renowned pastoral poet. Farrukh Ahmed, Sufia Kamal, Kaiser Haq and Nirmalendu Goon are important figures of modern Bangladeshi poetry. Notable writers of Bangladeshi novels include Mir Mosharraf Hossain, Akhteruzzaman Elias, Syed Waliullah, Shahidullah Kaiser, Shawkat Osman, Selina Hossain, Taslima Nasreen, Haripada Datta, Razia Khan, Anisul Hoque, Al Mahmud, Bipradash Barua, Tahmima Anam, Neamat Imam, Monica Ali and Zia Haider Rahman. Many Bangladeshi writers, such as Muhammad Zafar Iqbal, K. Anis Ahmed and Farah Ghuznavi, are acclaimed for their short stories.
The annual Ekushey Book Fair and Dhaka Literature Festival organized by the Bangla Academy are among the largest literary festivals in South Asia.

History of photography

Precursor technologies

A camera obscura used for drawing images

Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Chinese philosopher Mo Di and Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.^[7][8] In the 6th century CE, Byzantine mathematician Anthemius of Tralles used a type of camera obscura in his experiments,^[9] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) studied the camera obscura and pinhole camera,^[8][10] Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered silver nitrate,^[11] and Georg Fabricius (1516–71) discovered silver chloride.^[12] Techniques described in the Book of Optics are capable of producing primitive photographs using medieval materials.^[13][14][15]
Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566.^[16] Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.^[17] The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography.^[16]
The discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camerae obscurae that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley. A hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to fix and retain the image produced by the camera obscura.
Renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means "dark chamber" in Latin. It is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper.

Invention of photography

Earliest known surviving heliographic engraving, 1825, printed from a metal plate made by Nicéphore Niépce.^[18] The plate was exposed under an ordinary engraving and copied it by photographic means. This was a step towards the first permanent photograph taken with a camera.

Around the year 1800, Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance. He used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. Although he succeeded in capturing the shadows of objects placed on the surface in direct sunlight, and even made shadow-copies of paintings on glass, it was reported in 1802 that "the images formed by means of a camera obscura have been found too faint to produce, in any moderate time, an effect upon the nitrate of silver." The shadow images eventually darkened all over.^[19]
The first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it.^[18] Niépce was successful again in 1825. In 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature (i.e., of the image of a real-world scene, as formed in a camera obscura by a lens).^[20]

World's earliest surviving camera photograph, taken somewhere between 1826 and 1827: View from the Window at Le Gras

Because Niépce's camera photographs required an extremely long exposure (at least eight hours and probably several days), he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. In partnership with Louis Daguerre, he worked out post-exposure processing methods that produced visually superior results and replaced the bitumen with a more light-sensitive resin, but hours of exposure in the camera were still required. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy.
Niépce died in 1833 and Daguerre then redirected the experiments toward the light-sensitive silver halides, which Niépce had abandoned many years earlier because of his inability to make the images he captured with them light-fast and permanent. Daguerre's efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process. The essential elements- a silver-plated surface sensitized by iodine vapor, developed by mercury vapor, and "fixed" with sodium hyposulfite- were in place in 1837. The required exposure time was measured in minutes instead of hours. Daguerre took the earliest confirmed photograph of a person in 1838 while capturing a view of a Paris street: unlike the other pedestrian and horse-drawn traffic on the busy boulevard, which appears deserted, one man having his boots polished stood sufficiently still throughout the approximately ten-minute-long exposure to be visible. The existence of Daguerre's process was publicly announced, without details, on 7 January 1839. The news created an international sensation. France soon agreed to pay Daguerre a pension in exchange for the right to present his invention to the world as the gift of France, which occurred when complete working instructions were unveiled on 19 August 1839.

A latticed window in Lacock Abbey, England, photographed by William Fox Talbot in 1835. Shown here in positive form, this may be the oldest extant photographic negative made in a camera.

Meanwhile, in Brazil, Hercules Florence had apparently started working out a silver-salt-based paper process in 1832, later naming it Photographie, and an English inventor, William Fox Talbot, succeeded in making crude but reasonably light-fast silver images on paper as early as 1834 but had kept his work secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention in January 1839, Talbot published his method and set about improving on it. At first, like other pre-daguerreotype processes, Talbot's paper-based photography typically required hours-long exposures in the camera, but in 1840 he created the calotype process, with exposures to a freshly-sensitized damp paper comparable to the daguerreotype. In both its original and calotype forms, Talbot's process, unlike Daguerre's, created a translucent negative which could be used to print multiple positive copies, the basis of most chemical photography up to the present day. Daguerreotypes could only be replicated by rephotographing them with a camera.^[21] Talbot's famous tiny paper negative of the Oriel window in Lacock Abbey, one of a number of camera photographs he made in the summer of 1835, may be the oldest camera negative in existence.^[22][23]
John Herschel made many contributions to the new field. He invented the cyanotype process, later familiar as the "blueprint". He was the first to use the terms "photography", "negative" and "positive". He had discovered in 1819 that sodium thiosulphate was a solvent of silver halides, and in 1839 he informed Talbot (and, indirectly, Daguerre) that it could be used to "fix" silver-halide-based photographs and make them completely light-fast. He made the first glass negative in late 1839.
In the March 1851 issue of The Chemist, Frederick Scott Archer published his wet plate collodion process. It became the most widely used photographic medium until the gelatin dry plate, introduced in the 1870s, eventually replaced it. There are three subsets to the collodion process; the Ambrotype (a positive image on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype (a positive image on metal) and the glass negative, which was used to make positive prints on albumen or salted paper.
Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made during the rest of the 19th century. In 1891, Gabriel Lippmann introduced a process for making natural-color photographs based on the optical phenomenon of the interference of light waves. His scientifically elegant and important but ultimately impractical invention earned him the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1908.
Glass plates were the medium for most original camera photography from the late 1850s until the general introduction of flexible plastic films during the 1890s. Although the convenience of film greatly popularized amateur photography, early films were somewhat more expensive and of markedly lower optical quality than their glass plate equivalents, and until the late 1910s they were not available in the large formats preferred by most professional photographers, so the new medium did not immediately or completely replace the old. Because of the superior dimensional stability of glass, the use of plates for some scientific applications, such as astrophotography, continued into the 1990s, and in the niche field of laser holography it has persisted into the 2010s.

Film photography

Main article: Photographic film

Undeveloped Arista black-and-white film, ISO 125/22°

Hurter and Driffield began pioneering work on the light sensitivity of photographic emulsions in 1876. Their work enabled the first quantitative measure of film speed to be devised.
The first flexible photographic roll film was marketed by George Eastman in 1885, but this original "film" was actually a coating on a paper base. As part of the processing, the image-bearing layer was stripped from the paper and transferred to a hardened gelatin support. The first transparent plastic roll film followed in 1889. It was made from highly flammable nitrocellulose ("celluloid"), now usually called "nitrate film".
Although cellulose acetate or "safety film" had been introduced by Kodak in 1908,^[24] at first it found only a few special applications as an alternative to the hazardous nitrate film, which had the advantages of being considerably tougher, slightly more transparent, and cheaper. The changeover was not completed for X-ray films until 1933, and although safety film was always used for 16 mm and 8 mm home movies, nitrate film remained standard for theatrical 35 mm motion pictures until it was finally discontinued in 1951.
Films remained the dominant form of photography until the early 21st century, when advances in digital photography drew consumers to digital formats.^[25] Although modern photography is dominated by digital users, film continues to be used by enthusiasts and professional photographers. The distinctively "look" of film based photographs compared to digital images is likely due to a combination of factors, including: (1) differences in spectral and tonal sensitivity (S-shaped density-to-exposure (H&D curve) with film vs. linear response curve for digital CCD sensors) ^[26] (2) resolution and (3) continuity of tone.^[27]

Black-and-white

Main article: Monochrome photography

A photographic darkroom with safelight

Originally, all photography was monochrome, or black-and-white. Even after color film was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to dominate for decades, due to its lower cost and its "classic" photographic look. The tones and contrast between light and dark areas define black-and-white photography.^[28] It is important to note that monochromatic pictures are not necessarily composed of pure blacks, whites, and intermediate shades of gray, but can involve shades of one particular hue depending on the process. The cyanotype process, for example, produces an image composed of blue tones. The albumen print process, first used more than 160 years ago, produces brownish tones.
Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images, sometimes because of the established archival permanence of well-processed silver-halide-based materials. Some full-color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black-and-white results, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclusively shoot monochrome. Monochrome printing or electronic display can be used to salvage certain photographs taken in color which are unsatisfactory in their original form; sometimes when presented as black-and-white or single-color-toned images they are found to be more effective. Although color photography has long predominated, monochrome images are still produced, mostly for artistic reasons. Almost all digital cameras have an option to shoot in monochrome, and almost all image editing software can combine or selectively discard RGB color channels to produce a monochrome image from one shot in color.

Color

Main article: Color photography

Color photography was possible long before Kodachrome, as this 1903 portrait by Sarah Angelina Acland demonstrates, but in its earliest years the need for special equipment, long exposures and complicated printing processes made it extremely rare.

Color photography was explored beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments in color required extremely long exposures (hours or days for camera images) and could not "fix" the photograph to prevent the color from quickly fading when exposed to white light.
The first permanent color photograph was taken in 1861 using the three-color-separation principle first published by physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1855. Maxwell's idea was to take three separate black-and-white photographs through red, green and blue filters. This provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image. Transparent prints of the images could be projected through similar color filters and superimposed on the projection screen, an additive method of color reproduction. A color print on paper could be produced by superimposing carbon prints of the three images made in their complementary colors, a subtractive method of color reproduction pioneered by Louis Ducos du Hauron in the late 1860s.
Russian photographer Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii made extensive use of this color separation technique, employing a special camera which successively exposed the three color-filtered images on different parts of an oblong plate. Because his exposures were not simultaneous, unsteady subjects exhibited color "fringes" or, if rapidly moving through the scene, appeared as brightly colored ghosts in the resulting projected or printed images.
Implementation of color photography was hindered by the limited sensitivity of early photographic materials, which were mostly sensitive to blue, only slightly sensitive to green, and virtually insensitive to red. The discovery of dye sensitization by photochemist Hermann Vogel in 1873 suddenly made it possible to add sensitivity to green, yellow and even red. Improved color sensitizers and ongoing improvements in the overall sensitivity of emulsions steadily reduced the once-prohibitive long exposure times required for color, bringing it ever closer to commercial viability.
Autochrome, the first commercially successful color process, was introduced by the Lumière brothers in 1907. Autochrome plates incorporated a mosaic color filter layer made of dyed grains of potato starch, which allowed the three color components to be recorded as adjacent microscopic image fragments. After an Autochrome plate was reversal processed to produce a positive transparency, the starch grains served to illuminate each fragment with the correct color and the tiny colored points blended together in the eye, synthesizing the color of the subject by the additive method. Autochrome plates were one of several varieties of additive color screen plates and films marketed between the 1890s and the 1950s.
Kodachrome, the first modern "integral tripack" (or "monopack") color film, was introduced by Kodak in 1935. It captured the three color components in a multi-layer emulsion. One layer was sensitized to record the red-dominated part of the spectrum, another layer recorded only the green part and a third recorded only the blue. Without special film processing, the result would simply be three superimposed black-and-white images, but complementary cyan, magenta, and yellow dye images were created in those layers by adding color couplers during a complex processing procedure.
Agfa's similarly structured Agfacolor Neu was introduced in 1936. Unlike Kodachrome, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the processing. Currently available color films still employ a multi-layer emulsion and the same principles, most closely resembling Agfa's product.
Instant color film, used in a special camera which yielded a unique finished color print only a minute or two after the exposure, was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.
Color photography may form images as positive transparencies, which can be used in a slide projector, or as color negatives intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photo printing equipment. After a transition period centered around 1995–2005, color film was relegated to a niche market by inexpensive multi-megapixel digital cameras. Film continues to be the preference of some photographers because of its distinctive "look".

Digital photography

Main article: Digital photography

See also: Digital camera

In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer camera to use a charge-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the need for film: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. In 1991, Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital single lens reflex camera. Although its high cost precluded uses other than photojournalism and professional photography, commercial digital photography was born.
Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as a set of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film.^[29] An important difference between digital and chemical photography is that chemical photography resists photo manipulation because it involves film and photographic paper, while digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications.
Digital photography dominates the 21st century. More than 99% of photographs taken around the world are through digital cameras, increasingly through smartphones.

Synthesis photography

Synthesis photography is part of computer-generated imagery (CGI) where the shoothttp://nerobkhondoker.blogspot.com/ing process is modeled on real photography. The CGI, creating digital copies of real universe, requires a visual representation process of these universes. Synthesis photography is the application of analog and digital photography in digital space. With the characteristics of the real photography but not being constrained by the physical limits of real world, synthesis photography allows to get away from real photography.